What is CPU Register:-

 These are the high speed memory location built into the microprocessor.Register  small areas of extremely fast storage
usually measured by the no of bits they hold e.g._a "32 bit register or a ""64 bit register".

x86 architecture provide 16 basic program register:

General Purpose Register (EAX,EBX,ECX,EDX,ESL,ESL,EBP,ESP,)
Segment Register(CS,DS,SS,ES,FS,GS,EFLAG,EIP)

X64 ADDRESS an additional 8 general purpose register:

RAX, RBX, R CX, RDX, RDL, RSL ,RBP ,RSP  ,R8-R15. 

REGISTER-CACHE -RAM - HDD

• The cpu usages these location to store data and instruction temporarily for pro  
•    cpu  process , store and transfer data from one components to another with the help of register .
• The number of register variable among computers.
• it increases the performance of cpu.
• Each register receive the information , holds the temporarily and pass it on, as direct by CU
• the size of register depend on the computer architeture..

1. PC(Program Counter)
2. IR(Instruction register)
3. MAR (Memory Address Register)
4. IP(Instruction Pointer)
5. SPR(Stack Pointer Register(SP)
6. GPR (General Purpose Register)(A,B,C,D)
7. Address and Segment Register(CS,DS,ES,SS)
8. Index Register(Dl , Sl)

 PC(Program counter):_

           1.    it holds the add of the next instruction to be fetched and executed .
           2.      when instruction is fetched the value us automatically incremented and its points to the add of next instruction.

IR(Instruction Register):-

                     it holds the current instruction that is being executed.

MAR Register

MAR stand for “Memory Address Register”, and its main objective is to store all memory addresses of entire data and instructions.MAR helps to make the communication with using of MDR (Memory Data Register) in between the CPU and Main Memory

MBR(Memory Buffer Register):-

    it holds the content of memory location read from or written in the memory. 

FR Register

FR register stands for “Flag Register“, and this register helps to indicate the specific condition. Flag register contains the one or two bytes, and further every byte is splitted into 8 bits. And every bit delivers the flag means condition.

Few flags register are Carry flag, Parity flag, Sign flag, Zero flags, and Overflow flag.

GPR Registers

GPR stands for “General Purpose Registers“, and these are unified types of registers. These registers are capable to store the memory addresses, data values as well as floating-point values. Mostly, GPR registers are used into modern CPU and GPUs due to their best flexibility. 

SPR Register

SPR stands for “Special Purpose Registers“, and they are used to hold the program state. SPR registers are enabled with PC (Program Counter) and SR (Status Register).

General Purpose Register:-

•        These register are used to perform arithmetic and logical operation
• EAX, EBX, EDX, are 4 byte register AX, BX, CX and DX are 2byte AH ,AL BH,BL,CH,CL,DH and DL are 1 byte register.

AX(Accumulator Register)

             it is used to asthmatic and logical operation,it holds the initial data to be operated upon and the final result for processing .
         the result of arithmetic operation are returned to accumulator to transfer to the main memory through buffer.
BX(Base Register)
                 it is an address register that can be used for in directing addressing.
 CX(counter Register)
        it is used for counting purpose,it acts as counter loop ex .for(int i=10;i>0;i--)
DX(Data Register)
   it is special role in division and multiplication.
                    

Segment Register / Address Register:

it is a group of four segment CS,DS,ES,SS.
size of each segment register is 2 byte.
CS(Code Segment)
it hold the base location of all executable instruction in the program .CS along with ip register fetches the next instruction.
 DS(Data Register)
       it is default base location for memory variable.
DS points of data in memory using Dl and  SI
CPU calculate the offset variable using the values of DS.
ES(Extra Segment)
            it is additional base location for memory of DS .
 SS(Stack Segment):
            it contains the base location of the current program stack.

• Index Register:
• index Registry are used for data movement.
• there are two type of index registers.
• SI(Source Index)
• DI(Destination Index
• DS Point to data in memory using DI (destination index) or SI(source Index) registes.

IP(Instruction Pointer)
CS along with ip Register fetched the next instruction.

THANKS FOR READING 

SHIVASNHU TIWARI

                              Central Processing Unit(CPU)

What is Central Processing Unit(CPU), CPU  an acronym for Central Processing Unit , supposed to be the brain of computer it mainly executes the program and controls different parts of a computer such as memory , input and output devices. Program and data are stored under its control . It helps you see your output on the screen and gets print out on the paper through printer.

   In Logical operation ,A.L.U. Compare two no and data makes decision while processing,

A.L.U. takes instruction or guidelines from control unit . it gets data from memory and return information to the same A.L.U. works amazingly fast , its estimate speed is about 1 million+ calculation per second it contains several register and accumulator which works as virtual memory during calculation A.L.U. ., as instructed by the control unit according to be programs receive data from memory and place them on accumulator.

for ex, you are add two no A&B . control unit select a from memory and add to B available in A.L.U. output gets in memory or for future calculation it is stored in accumulator .

Control Unit:

Decode instruction and determine which next to be executed . Control unit is a part of the processor that is in-charge and it direct the computer system to execute stored program instruction . It communication with other parts of the hardware.

 Control Unit is a internal process of a computer . It controls the input and output process of the computer . It also direct the exchange of data and instruction between memory & ALU

.

It received the instruction of a program to execute the program itself from memory. Then it convert the instruction into electronic signal and delivers them to the appropriate device to complete the data processing . Control unit also direct the ALU about the location of the data processed in the memory . The control unit also instruct the ALU about what operation to be performed , and after processing , where to the store the  output. the instruction in the form of signal are sent to various parts of computer through the control bus carrier electronic signal through out the system unit  . they are named on the basis of the type of signal they carry. the main  bus of the system unit is called system bus . And the BUS used for the transportation of control signal is called control BUS.

Registers:

Computer instruction are carried out the C.P.U. to execute instruction , information is exchanged C.P.U. of computer uses a memory unit to exchange information fast and sanctification . This memory unit is called a register.In memory unit data are stored during the processing. Its speed is faster access then memory formally we call this Register too.

Register are not a part of main memory . They store information for time being . Size of a register equals to the capacity of its storage of bit . For instance , If a register can store 8-bits then it is called 8 bit register . Nowadays 16-bit register are in vogue while 32 bit and 64 bit processor are also in use. the more bit register would have , the faster data processing of computer will be, computer has got following type register:

➱ Memory Address Register:

                                                 This store active memory location of computer instruction.

➱ Memory Buffer Register:

                                                 This register store the content read from to write onto memory.

➱ Program Control Register:

                                                This stored address of the instruction to be execute next.

➱Accumulator Register:

                                                This Register stored the middle and last result of the data being execute Normally . these register are used while execution of information.

➱Instruction Register:

                                              These register store instruction to be executed.

➱ Input/Output Register:

                                             These register are used to communicate info between input or output device.

BUS:

      Let us discuss what is BUS is. it acts like a path between the components of computer a computer has two main buses , First Internal OR system bus and second external or expansion bus . The system bus is situated on the motherboard and links the CPU with other device on the motherboards .The task of expansion has BUS is to link the CPU with external device for ex key-boards ,mouse,modern,printer etc.The chords of disk drive and other device are plugged in the bus . The system bus has two parts -DATA BUS & ADDRESS BUS . Data bus is an electrical path which attaches , CPU , memory and other hardware device . in fact , a bus is a set of parallel chords.The number of chords in the bus affects the transaction of data between hardware components .Because every chords can transfer 1 bite of data at a time . one eight chords bus can carry eight bite . It means one byte at a time.Address bus too is a set of chords like data bus ,An address bus links only a CPU and RAM and carries memory address only , every byte in the ram is attached to a number which is its memory address.  

Instruction Set:

 Let us see what an instruction set is. Every process accomplishes  takes like receiving character from the memory or getting a large number after comparing between two number .All of these operation have their own number which are called instruction . The list of instruction in processor is called instruction set . Each processor in mind.

 C.P.U. instruction which are for executing are prepared in a control unit instruction or instruction set list such operation that C.P.U can perform . Each instruction of instruction set represented in micro codes that instruct C.P.U about how to carry out complex operation.

Processor Speed:

Processor speed stands for the speed at which the CPU  execute the instruction . It is measured in megahertz(MHz).

Processor speed depends upon data bus being used by the processor . Data bus is used to transfer data on the processor . These data buses comes in 8 bits  (1 byte) data at a time .

System Clock:

Let us see what a system clock plays in a computer . The events inside a computer takes a place at a decide speed which is controlled by an  electronic dumber . It is called system clock . This part is an electronic circuit which create pulses at a fast speed which is measured in million of cycle per second . The rate of the processor clock is called its clock speed , and one pulse is called clock ticks . the system clock normally does nothing to maintain time and date . To do all these thing there is a separate circuit in all the computers . The system clock synchronizes the internal activities of a computer.

Thanks for Reading.

SHIVANSHU TIWARI

                           RAM ,ROM & CACHE

RAM(Random Access Memory):-

   Random access memory as same as main memory . Ram refers to a memory in which data and program can not only be obtained from primary storage , but also can be put into it. it is volatile, means the contents of the memory disappear once the current is turned off.
        Before a program runs,the program is loaded into a ram which allow the CPU direct access to the program.
example( if you have a smartphone and you have never open any application , you open any application as your choice if you open it,it take some second to view the content , after open you press home button and reopen a same application , this time you see a same application is open but it never take a same time becoz its already in ram so it is not take a long time , if you clear all apps from the task manager and stop application from the background and you open any application again so it takes some time again) 

Types of Ram in used in PC:-

Dynamic RAM is abbreviated as DRAM. DRAM being the more common type need to be refreshed (refreshing means recharging the chip with electricity) more often - thousand of times per second . Each time chip is refreshed , the content are lost. Recharging the chip quit often makes it slower then other RAMs.

Synchronous RAM:-

  This type of chip work faster than DRAM . This chip is faster because it moves at the speed of CPU's clock , it can moves data much more efficient than DRAM.

Static RAM:-

Static RAM need to be refreshed less often and hence contain data longer than DRAM ,ALL the RAM's are volatile but DRAM is slower and less expensive than SRAM , it is especially than DRAM. SRAM is used in super computer.

SIMM:-

SIMM

A SIMM, or Single  In line Memory Module, is a type of memory module used for random access memory in personal computer , it  differs from DIMM (the most predominant from of memory module today) in that the contacts on a SIMM are redundant on both sides of a modules.
memory modules evolved from need of saving motherboard space and ease memory expansion, instead 8 and 9 single DRAM DIP chips .only one additional memory module was needed to increase the memory of the computer. a few 80286- based computer used (often non-standard ) memory module like SIPP(Single In line Pin Package ).
SIPP's 30 pin often bent or broke during installation, which is why they are quick replaced by SIMMs which used content plates rather than pins.

DIMM:-

DIMM(Dual In line Memory Module ) Comprise a series of a random access memory integrated Circuit .These modules are mounted on a printed circuit board and designed for use in PC . DIMM's began to replace SIMM's the predominant module as Intel's Pentium process began to control the market.

The main deference SIMM and DIMM is that SIMM have 32 bits data path and DIMM have 62 bit data path.Since Intel's Pentium has (as do several other processor ) a 64 bit bus width , it required SIMM installed in matched pairs in order to use them.

CACHE MEMORY:-

Cache is a storage unit on the motherboard that allows you to store your frequently or most used information and avoids loading it from a slower storage medium. The main purpose of a cache is to cut down information access time for frequently used files.

In a simple term, cache memory is a special type of high speed memory built onto or next to the processor , your processor moves and works with lot of data . sometimes , your processor is work on a problem and needs to set it aside and start working an other before picking up the original problem , Without cache , your processor would have to store the set aside data into conventional memory (RAM) .while there is no particular reason your processor cannot do this. it's nowhere near as your processor.Designers figured out that there had to be a much faster and more efficient way for this happen.

Depending on what you do, the amount of cache your system has , can greatly increase or decrease the overall speed of system . for example a 405MHz Pentium III has lot more cache than a 405MHz celeron, even both chips has a same clock speed ,they do not perform same at the same level of situation,

Types of cache memory:

L1 Cache:

L1 Cache is also know as on board or primary cache and is built into the CPU itself. L1 cache is typically very small in size (for most of the computer is 16kb-128kb although this is changing rapidly) but it is very fast.

 L2 Cache:

L2 cache memory is also known as external or secondary cache , it is built into a separate chip, but it is still much faster then conventional memory because it , too is not subject to the speed limitation of the motherboard , typically range for L2 cache are 128kb - 1MB.

3. L3 Cache.

Usually , it is not used . This Cache is connected to the motherboard . This Cache is used for computer with high capacity . L3 is not necessary for all computer.

ROM(Read Only Memory):

Read only memory , in a sort , ROM is permanent memory of computer . Program are built into ROM at the factory level and cannot changed by the users . You can read them  , but can not alter . ROM's is non- volatile - the contents program that are 'firm' - not changeable. ROM is a non-volatile memory the content do not disappear when the current is turned off.

ROM is of the following type:

1. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

2. Erasable programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

3. Electrical Erasable programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Virtual Memory

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A video card , also referred to as a graphics card , display adapter , graphics card and numerous  other term , is an item of personal computer hardware whose function is to generate and output images to display .
Every mother board support a definite range of video card formate, therefore , before buying it decide whether it is as per the motherboard .

Today ,many computers don't have video expansion Cards .

SOUND CARD:

it is a hard ware unit of computer which is fitted on the motherboard as expansion card . it turns the analog symbols received from the microphone into digital form to be stored into computer memory , in additional sound card turns digital signal into a analog form and send into the speaker as output.

Network card is also know as network adapter , LAN adapter or network interface card , it is part of computer hardware which has been made to connect the computer with computer network , it works as physical layer i.e. O.S.I. first layer and data link layer it means OSI second layer device . it provide physical access to networking media and provide lower-level addressing through the use of MAC address . with its help the users can communicate with each other throughwire or without wire.

PARALLEL PORT:

Parallel port is a kind of interface that links so many parts of computer and is found on the same . it is also known as printer port .many manufacture of personal computer and laptop consider parallel interface a legacy port and is no more in use now . parallel adapter are available for the use of parallel printer of USB system.

OPTICAL DISK DRIVER:

     

Optical Disk Driver is a flat circular , usually disc , whereon data is stored in the form of pits (or bumps) within a flat surface , usually along a single spiral groove that covers the entire recorded surface of the disc . This data is generally accessed when a special material on this disc (often aluminium) is illuminated with a laser diode.the pits distort the refracted laser light.